One hundred and eighty years of capital expenditure for equitable and climate-resilient water and sanitation in England and Wales

Just published: For adequate water and sanitation services, it is necessary to consider the level of capital and capital maintenance expenditure for ongoing systems to deliver SDG-6 and now climate resilience. This study of utility capital expenditure over 180 years found that in England and Wales, UK, it took an average annual investment of $49 per capita (USD$ PPP, 2020 prices) to achieve ‘SDG-6’ equivalence after the first 125 years, at $22,800 GDP pc; $137pc to maintain and enhance service quality over the following 50 years to 2025; with regulatory approval for $228pc annually to 2030 ($50,000 GDP pc).